Chapter+Objectives

__Define theory__ Theory - systematically organized knowledge that is thought to explain things and events that are observed in nature (glossary page 442). __Identify three ways in which theory is useful in the study and practice of organizational behavior.__ 1. A study of theory helps an aspiring administrator cognitively examine different perspectives on which to base actions. Knowing the theory you agree with gives you a foundation for decision making about the organizational behavior you expect and model. Knowing the theory you disagree with helps you avoid being the type of leader you fear becoming. 2. Situational leadership requires a leader to have an arsenal of tools for leading an organization. Theory provides understanding of situations and appropriate application of tools to situations. 3. Everyone in education enters leadership as a subordinate to others. Knowledge of organizational theory helps you identify the leadership philosophy of those for whom you work. School board members, especially, may come into their position with very different organizational understanding based on their own careers as compared to educational leaders that have been promoted through the educational system.
 * Chapter 2 Objectives:**

__Define and describe the two principal sets of opposing views - one on education, the other on organization - that invariably cause conflict for educational leaders.__ education: traditional versus progressive organization: bureaucratic versus human relations

__Specify and describe the major issues that persist today in the ongoing Great Educational Debate.__ Traditional focus on curriculum standards, standardized testing, and rigorous core content education vies with progressive focus on diversity in all areas of education and learner centered education.

__Describe and discuss //A Nation at Risk// and its historic impact on schooling in the United States today.__ Officially titled "A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform"; released by President Reagan's Secretary of Education in 1983; called for reform in American education; the first paragraph states: //**Our Nation is at risk. Our once unchallenged preeminence in commerce, industry, science, and technological innovation is being overtaken by competitors throughout the world. This report is concerned with only one of the many causes and dimensions of the problem, but it is the one that undergirds American prosperity, security, and civility. We report to the American people that while we can take justifiable pride in what our schools and colleges have historically accomplished and contributed to the United States and the well-being of its people, the educational foundations of our society are presently being eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity that threatens our very future as a Nation and a people. What was unimaginable a generation ago has begun to occur--others are matching and surpassing our educational attainments.**// [] historic in that it detonated a fierce school reform era and established school reform as a political agenda item on a whole new level; today's NCLB Act is built on the foundation laid by the //A Nation at Risk// report itself, the reform movement it spawned, and the new level of White House involvement in educational policy

__Compare and contrast the educational views of E.D. Hirsch, Jr. with those of Howard Gardner.__ Hirsch and Gardner both addressed what it means to learn; Hirsch defined learning as cultural literacy and wrote a book containing 4,552 facts that separate the "educated" from the "under educated" or "uneducated", while Gardner defined learning as in terms of seven dimensions of intelligence (multiple intelligence theory). I (Barb) currently have a student who exemplifies musical intelligence, but struggles with traditional school. This student drives me crazy with his constant exploration of sound effects and my challenge is to allow him to use his natural musical intelligence to learn the state science standards (not Hirsch's 4,552 facts, but basically cultural literacy).

__Define theory of action and describe how it is relevant to educational leadership.__ practical application of theory; educational leaders make many decisions each day and should base their judgements on sound theory Example: good theory = all students are capable of learning leads to good practice = all students are given opportunity to learn as opposed to putting dyslexic students, hearing impaired students, or English language learners into the resource room with a low level curriculum

__Define and describe theory of practice.__ The broad theoretical amalgam that guides and gives direction to one's professional practice, as distinguished from a practice in which one responds in //ad hoc// fashion as events unfold (glossary, page 442)

__Describe the major educational issues and stratgies for change that were addressed at the three national summit meetings on education.__
 * 1: 1989, in response to //A Nation at Risk// report, attended by President Bush and state governors, focused on ways to set new performance goals for schools
 * 2: 1996, attended by President Clinton, state governors, corporate executives, and education experts, worked toward mandated state educational standards
 * 3: 1999, attended by President Clinton, state governors, state school superintendents, local superintendents, corporate executives, teacher union leaders, and education experts, worked on accountability in education

__Describe the educational political strategy for school reform that emerged from the national summit meetings on education.__ //A Nation at Risk// and President Reagan placed school reform on the national political agenda. The summit meetings began as politicians directing school reform by empowering states to create curriculum standards. Ultimately, stakeholders from the business world and educational arena were included but the reform process continued to focus on state designed standards and accountability measures.

__Define and describe Multiple Intelligences Theory.__ Howard Gardner's work published in 1984; revolutionized learning theory 7 dimensions of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal (see pages 62-63 of text for explanations of each dimension)

__Define and describe the key differences between traditional IQ theory and MIT.__ Traditional IQ is a single measure of intelligence; MIT shows there are different dimensions of intelligence and each dimension is housed in different areas of the brain.

__Describe the major differences between traditional IQ theory and the theory of learnable intelligences.__ Traditional IQ theory states that IQ is genetically inherited. Nothing a person did could increase it. David Perkins' theory of learnable intelligneces states that intelligence includes lessons learned from experiences and reflection, which can be changed based on a person's activities. Unlike traditional IQ theory, learnable intelligneces theory allows for changes in IQ throughout a person's life.